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Hideyo Noguchi

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Hideyo Noguchi
野口 英世
Born(1876-11-09)November 9, 1876
Inawashiro, Fukushima, Japan
DiedMay 21, 1928(1928-05-21) (aged 51)
Accra, Gold Coast
Resting placeWoodlawn Cemetery, New York City, US
Known forsyphilis
Treponema pallidum
Scientific career
Fieldsbacteriology
Japanese name
Kanji野口 英世
Hiraganaのぐち ひでよ
Transcriptions
RomanizationNoguchi Hideyo

Hideyo Noguchi (野口 英世, Noguchi Hideyo, November 9, 1876 – May 21, 1928), also known as Seisaku Noguchi (野口 清作, Noguchi Seisaku), was a prominent Japanese bacteriologist who in 1911 discovered the agent of syphilis as the cause of progressive paralytic disease. Noguchi was one of the first Japanese scientists to gain international acclaim and recognition.

Early life

[edit]

Noguchi Hideyo, whose childhood name was Seisaku Noguchi,[1] was born to a family of farmers for generations[1] in Inawashiro, Fukushima prefecture in 1876. When he was one and a half years old, he fell into a fireplace and suffered a burn injury on his left hand. There was no doctor in the small village, but one of the men examined the boy. "The fingers of the left hand are mostly gone," he said, "and the left arm, the left foot, and the right hand are burned; I don't know how badly."[2]

In 1883, Noguchi entered Mitsuwa elementary school. Thanks to generous contributions from his teacher Kobayashi and his friends, he was able to receive surgery on his badly burned hand. He recovered about 70% mobility and functionality in his left hand through the operation.

Hideyo Noguchi and his mother Shika
Hideyo Noguchi's Microscope used to study of the causal agent of syphilis at the Rockefeller Institute.

Noguchi decided to become a doctor to help those in need. He apprenticed himself to Dr. Kanae Watanabe (渡部 鼎, Watanabe Kanae), the same doctor who had performed the surgery. He entered Saisei Gakusha, which later became Nippon Medical School. He passed the examinations to practice medicine when he was twenty years old in 1897. Noguchi showed signs of great talent. Noguchi had three benefactors supporting him, Sakae Kobayashi, his elementary school teacher, Kanae Watanabe, the doctor who performed surgery on his hand[3], and his main benefactor, Morinosuke Chiwaki, the founder of the Tokyo Dental College, who helped fund his travel to America.[4]

In 1898, he changed his surname to Hideyo after reading a Tsubouchi Shōyō novel of college students whose character had the same name—Seisaku—as him. The character in the story was an intelligent medical student like Noguchi but became lazy and ruined his life.[5]

Career

[edit]

In 1900, Noguchi travelled on the America Maru to the United States.[6] In part, his move was motivated by difficulties in obtaining a medical position in Japan, as its emphasis on expensive schooling and seniority put limits on his success.[4] In addition, his employers were concerned that his hand deformity would discourage potential patients.[4] He felt moving to the United States, where talent counted for everything, would help him find more success.[4]

Noguchi went to Philadelphia and obtained a job as a research assistant with Dr. Simon Flexner at the University of Pennsylvania in 1901 and later at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research.[7] Flexner had to leave to control an outbreak of plague with the government, but left Noguchi under guidance of Philadelphia physician Silas Weir Mitchell and dealt with the toxicology and immunology of venomous snakes.[8] Noguchi had minimal experience with snake venom, but had seen researchers at the Kitasato Institute work with habu, a pit piper.[7] Noguchi worked for three months. Dr. Flexner returned to see he had written a 250 page paper on snake venom.[8] Noguchi had done it not knowing much on snake venom beforehand and entirely in English, a foreign language to him.[8] Both presented their scientific findings to the National Academy of Science, being held in Philadelphia.[9] Although, Dr. Mitchell did most of the talking about their findings on corpuscle-dissolving component and toxicity of snake venom while Noguchi handled the specimens and equipment used in the demonstration.[9]

Dr. Mitchell said about Noguchi after their research concluded.

"It is thanks to the great efforts of this young man that I have been able to bring my thirty years of research to their final conclusion." [10]

Dr. Mitchell praised Noguchi's work, becoming good friends with him. Although, Dr. Mitchell was concerned at how he would be accepted in larger Western society,[8] but in 1907 the University of Pennsylvania awarded Hideyo Noguchi an honorary degree.[11] Their research paper appeared in the University of Pennsylvania's medical journal, becoming Noguchi's first official research publication.[10] German researcher Paul Ehrlich even wrote to congratulate him.[12] Dr. Mitchell had recommended Noguchi as a official researcher, which received funding for grants from Carnegie Institute and National Academy of Science of two thousand dollars.[10] Noguchi was invited to the Statens Serum Institute in Copenhagen, Denmark. He continued his research on serology and wrote several papers with fellow bacteriologist, Thorvald Madsen.[13] His friendship continued with Madsen late into life.[13]

In 1904, Noguchi started at the Rockefeller Institute.[14] He and his peers learned from their work and from each other. In this period, a fellow research assistant in Flexner's lab was Frenchman Alexis Carrel, who would go on to win a Nobel Prize in 1912.[15] He would later be nominated numerous times for a Nobel Prize, but never received one.[16]

In 1905, the causative agent of syphilis, Treponema pallidum, was first identified by Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann.[13] In 1906, Noguchi was the first person in America to reproduce this experiment and identify the cause of the disease.[13]

In 1909, Noguchi published a monograph on snake venom, Snake Venoms: An Investigation of Venomous Snakes with Special Reference to the Phenomena of Their Venoms.[13] Noguchi became fascinated with the concept of immunity which would become a theme of his life work through developing serums and vaccines.[17]

During his work with snakes, Noguchi complained about the feeding of live rabbits to the snakes in the lab, throwing them inside the cages, and the rabbit would have to wait to be eaten. Noguchi felt this practice cruel, but this earned him a reputation as being oversensitive and too sentimental for a scientist.[18] Furthermore, Noguchi was known for his sloppiness at his work station, littering it with cigarettes and used test tubes, but he told his advisors to look at the results, not the cigarettes.[17]

In 1910, Noguchi published the manuscript, Serum Diagnosis of Syphilis, which received international acclaim and became one of his most popular publications.[19]

In 1913, Noguchi demonstrated the presence of Treponema pallidum in the brain of a progressive paralysis patient, proving that the spirochete was the cause of the neurosyphilis and the homogeneity between a mental disease and a physical disease.[20] Dr. Noguchi's name is remembered in the binomial attached to another spirochete, Leptospira noguchii.[21]

Personal life

[edit]
Hideyo Noguchi's Shandaken house on Old Route 42
Hideyo Noguchi and his friends on the porch of his Shandaken home

Noguchi's personal life offers another side of his humanity. While working for the Rockefeller iInstitute, Noguchi had an apartment in 381 Central Park West.[22]

In 1917, Noguchi suffered from typhoid fever and appendicitis.[13] His friend Hoshi gave him money for his treatment. While recovering, Noguchi and his wife, Mary Dardis, took a four hour train ride to the Glenbrook Hotel in Shandaken located in the Catskills Mountains.[13] The small hamlet with less than a hundred people reminded him of his hometown of Inawashiro with the mountains similar to the Bandai foothills and a local lake like that of Lake Inawashiro.[13]

Noguchi decided to purchase land, approximately two hectares, and build a house in Shandaken, becoming one of the largest landowners in the hamlet.[3] The construction was completed around June 15th, 1918.[3] He built and designed his home alongside the Esopus river where he would fish and spend most of his summers in 1918, 1922, and 1925 to 1927.[23]

In 1925, his wife, Mary, nicknamed Maize by her husband, three brothers came to visit.[13][3] In addition to that, Ichiro Hori, a Japanese photographer and artist, and Japanese students studying abroad visited and stayed with him at his Shandaken home.[3] Mary called her husband, Hide.[13]

Noguchi was gifted oil paints from his neighbor, Ichiro Hori.[13] His paintings hang in the Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum.[24] Other hobbies included shoji and chess.[23]

Hideyo Noguchi using color photography technique autochrome lumière

It was said that there is no researcher who likes photography more than Dr. Noguchi.[25] For instance, Noguchi was an amateur photographer, and he might have been one of the first color photographs of the Japanese.[25] He achieved this through using the autochrome lumière, an early color photograph technique. He stated this in a letter, dated August 8th, 1914, to his childhood mentor, Sakae Kobayashi.[25]

Luetin experiment and the antivivisectionists

[edit]

In 1911 and 1912 at the Rockefeller Institute in New York City, Noguchi was working on a syphilis skin test, which could provide a useful diagnostic procedure to complement the Wassermann test in the detection of syphilis.[26]

Professor William Henry Welch, Board of Scientific Directors at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, urged Noguchi to conduct human trials.[26] The subjects were gathered from clinics and hospitals across New York City. In the experiment, the doctors given the tests injected an inactive product of syphilis, called luetin, under the skin on the upper arm of the patient.[26]

Skin reactions were studied, as they varied among healthy subjects and syphilis patients, based on the disease's stage and its treatment. The lutein test gave a positive reaction almost 100 percent for congenital and late syphilis.[27] Of the 571 subjects, 315 had syphilis.[28] The remaining subjects were controls; some of which were orphans between the ages of 2 and 18 years.[28] Most were hospital patients being treated for diseases, such as malaria, leprosy, tuberculosis, and pneumonia, and the subjects did not did not realize they were being experimented on and could not give consent. [28]

Critics at the time, mainly from the anti-vivisectionist movement, noted that the Rockefeller Institute violated the rights of vulnerable orphans and hospital patients. There was concern among anti-vivisectionists that the test subjects had contracted syphilis from the experiments, but were proven to be false.[26][29]

In Dr. Noguchi's defense, Noguchi had performed tests on animals to ensure the safety of the luetin test.[26] Rockefeller Institute business manager Jerome D. Greene wrote a letter to the Anti-Vivisection Society, which had pointed out that Noguchi had tested it on himself and his fellow researchers before administering it.[26]

In a letter to District Attorney Charles S. Whitman, Greene said

"What public institution would not welcome a harmless and painless test which would enable it to decide in the case of every person admitted whether that person was afflicted with a venereal disease or not?" [26]

Much of the information came from sensationalized newspapers, which did not consult medical professionals.[26] Greene mentioned the steps taken to ensure the sterility.[26] His explanation was considered a demonstration of the care that doctors were taking in research. In addition, Noguchi might have received more criticism due to his race with racist metaphors such as yellow peril being perpetuated. One of these newspaper described him as "the Oriental admirer of the fruits of Western civilization."[26]

In May 1912, the New York Society for the Prevention for Cruelty to Children asked the New York district attorney to press charges against Noguchi, but he declined. [30] Although, none of subjects were infected with syphilis, the Rockefeller Institute tested on patients without consent.[26]

Even though none of the subjects were injured in the experiment, Hideyo Noguchi had committed a wrong, it was 'a wrong without injury'. [26]Albert Leffingwell, a physician, social reformer, and advocate for vivisectionist restrictions, said in response to Jerome D. Greene.[26]

"If insurance could have been given that the luetin test implied no risk of any kind, might not the Rockefeller Institute have secured any number of volunteers by the offer of a gratuity of twenty or thirty dollars as a compensation for any discomfort that might be endured?"[26]

At the time of the luetin experiment, consent in medical science was by no means customary.[29][26] For instance, the fathers of microbiology, Robert Koch, operated medical concentration camps in Africa in 1906 to 1907 to find a cure for sleeping sickness, and ended up blinding some of his patients, and Louis Pasteur experimented on 9-year-old Joseph Meister without a medical license even though it was a success and was suspected to have lied about conducting animal trials.[31][32]

The United States did not develop sufficient consensus about unethical human experimentation for laws to be passed until the late 20th century, which brought about informed consent and the rights of patients.

Later work

[edit]

Later, Noguchi showed discontent working on lesser known diseases, noted by his Japanese assistant, Akatsu, at the Rockefeller Institute.[33] Noguchi would lose his temper and scold his assistant. He wanted to work on something more of a threat, such as cancer.[33][34]

In a letter to Flexner, he wrote,

"Somehow I cannot manage to find enough time to sit quietly and think over things calmly and reflect upon many things and phases in life. I seem to be chasing something all the time, perhaps an acquired habit or rather the lack of poise".[35]

Out of the laboratory, he was a different person, much less likely to lose his temper. He would even invite him to restaurants, laugh, and speak Japanese with him—something he never did at the Rockefeller Institute.[22]

Nonetheless, Noguchi did not seem satisfied. Eventually, he decided to focus his attention on yellow fever, which some of his colleagues died researching.[23] In 1918, Noguchi traveled throughout Central America and South America working with the International Health Board to conduct research to develop a vaccine for yellow fever, and to research Oroya fever, poliomyelitis and trachoma.[36]

Hideyo Noguchi along the Rio Grande dissecting a crocodile

After his trip to Japan where he visited his mother, Noguchi was inspired to tackle Rocky Mountain spotted fever, a disease similar to Tsutsugamushi, which was first isolated and found in Japan. One of the reasons for him choosing this disease was that deaths were common for rice planters in Japan.[37]

In 1923, Noguchi was credited with producing an effective antiserum against Rocky Mountain spotted fever.[38] While working on the diseases, he said, "Whether I succeed or not is another matter, but the problem is worth trying."[37]

Noguchi was a bacteriologist and believed that yellow fever was caused by bacteria instead of a virus, which would later be proven wrong. During his career, viruses were not well known and studied, having been discovered by two scientists in 1892.[39] He worked for much of the next ten years attempting to prove this. Noguchi thought he had even developed a vaccine against "yellow fever". His work was criticized as taking an inaccurate approach for yellow fever that was contradictory to contemporary research.[13] Later it would be understood he had confused yellow fever with leptospirosis, his vaccine was successfully used to treat the latter disease.[13] After Noguchi's death in 1928, the electron microscope was developed in 1931, which could clearly identify and prove yellow fever was a virus, even though skeptics had started to understand it was earlier.[40]

Death

[edit]
The bust of the Japanese scientist and doctor Hideyo Noguchi was inaugurated on June 22, 2018 outside the Crystal Palace in Guayaquil

Following the death of British pathologist Adrian Stokes of yellow fever in September 1927,[41] it became increasingly evident that yellow fever was caused by a virus, not by the bacillus Leptospira icteroides, as Noguchi believed.[13]

Feeling his reputation was at stake, Noguchi hastened to Lagos to carry out additional research. However, he found the working conditions in Lagos did not suit him. At the invitation of Dr. William Alexander Young, the young director of the British Medical Research Institute, Accra, Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), he moved to Accra and made this his base in 1927.

However, Noguchi proved a very difficult guest and by May 1928 Young regretted his invitation. Noguchi was secretive and volatile, working almost entirely at night to avoid contact with fellow researchers. Possibly his erratic and irresponsible behavior was caused by the untreated syphilis with which he was diagnosed in 1913, and which may have progressed to neurosyphilis.[13] The diaries of Oskar Klotz, another researcher with the Rockefeller Foundation,[42] describe Noguchi's temper and behavior as erratic and bordering on the paranoid. His methods were haphazard.

According to Klotz, Noguchi inoculated huge numbers of monkeys with yellow fever, but failed to keep proper records. Noguchi might have believed himself immune to yellow fever, having been inoculated with a vaccine of his own development.[13]

Despite repeated promises to Young, Noguchi failed to keep infected mosquitoes in their secure containers. In May 1928, having failed to find evidence for his theories, Noguchi was set to return to New York after spending six months in Africa, but was fallen ill in Lagos.[13]

He boarded his ship to sail home, but on 12 May was put ashore at Accra and taken to a hospital with yellow fever. After lingering for some days, he died on 21 May.[43]

In a letter home, Young states, "He died suddenly noon Monday. I saw him Sunday afternoon – he smiled – and amongst other things, said, “Are you sure you are quite well?" "Quite." I said, and then he said "I don’t understand."[44]

Seven days later, despite exhaustive sterilisation of the site and most particularly of Noguchi's laboratory, Young himself died of yellow fever.[45]

Legacy

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Statue of Hideyo Noguchi in Ueno Park
Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum

Noguchi was influential during his lifetime. Although, his later research was not able to reproduce many of his claims, including having discovered the causes of polio, rabies, trachoma, and yellow fever.[46] His mental state deteriorated as he suffered from neurosyphilis, prone to amnesia and personality changes. His finding that Noguchia granulosis causes trachoma was questioned within a year of his death, and overturned shortly thereafter.[47][48] Alongside his identification of the rabies pathogen,[49] because the medium he invented to cultivate bacteria was seriously prone to contamination.[50] A fellow Rockefeller Institute researcher said that Noguchi "knew nothing about the pathology of yellow fever" and criticized him for being unwilling to issue retractions for his claims.[51] Another criticism are the flaws inside the Rockefeller Institute's system of peer review.[52]

Noguchi's most famous contribution is his identification of the causative agent of syphilis (the bacteria Treponema pallidum) in the brain tissues of patients with partial paralysis due to meningoencephalitis.[53] Other lasting contributions include the use of snake venom in serums, his development on antiserums for Rocky Mountain spotted fever, his manuscripts and diagnostics test, the identification of the leishmaniasis pathogen and of Carrion's disease with Oroya fever.[53][13] He published over 200 papers on various infectious diseases, one of the most prolific scientists, and gave lecture tours throughout Europe.[13] In 1921, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.[54] Although, his claim to have grown a culture of syphilis though is considered irreproducible.[citation needed]

In the 21st century, the Nobel Foundation archives were opened for public inspection and research. Noguchi was nominated several times for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: in 1913–1915, 1920, 1921 and 1924–1927.[16] Some of Noguchi's prize nominations and work on a pure culture of syphilis and yellow fever received scrutiny.[55][13]

Selected works

[edit]
Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution. [OCLC 2377892]
Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution. [OCLC 14796920]
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. [OCLC 3201239]
New York: P. B. Hoeber. [OCLC 14783533]

Honors during Noguchi's lifetime

[edit]

Noguchi was honored with Japanese and foreign decorations. He received honorary degrees from a number of universities.

Noguchi was self-effacing in his public life, and he often referred to himself as "Funny Noguchi" as noted in Times Magazine. When Noguchi was awarded an honorary doctorate at Yale, William Lyon Phelps observed that the kings of Spain, Denmark and Sweden had conferred awards, but "perhaps he appreciates even more than royal honors the admiration and the gratitude of the people."[56]

Posthumous honors

[edit]
Hideyo Noguchi on the ¥1,000 banknote
The grave of Hideyo Noguchi in Woodlawn Cemetery

Noguchi's remains were returned to the United States and buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City.[65]

In 1928, the Japanese government awarded Noguchi the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star, which represents the second highest of eight classes associated with the award.[66]

In 1979, the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR) was founded with funds donated by the Japanese government[67] at the University of Ghana in Legon, a suburb north of Accra.[68]

In 1981, the Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental (National Institute of Mental Health) "Honorio Delgado - Hideyo Noguchi" was founded with founds of the Peruvian Government and the JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) in Lima - Perú.[69]

Dr. Noguchi's portrait has been printed on Japanese 1000-yen banknotes since 2004.[70] In addition, the house near Inawashiro where he was born and brought up is preserved. It is operated as part of a museum to his life and achievements.

Noguchi's name is honored at the Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr. Hideyo Noguchi at the Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán.[71]

A 2.1 km street in Guayaquil, Ecuador downtown is named after Dr. Hideyo Noguchi.

Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize

[edit]
The footstone of Hideyo Noguchi in Woodlawn Cemetery, New York City

The Japanese Government established the Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize in July 2006 as a new international medical research and services award to mark the official visit by Prime Minister Jun'ichirō Koizumi to Africa in May 2006 and the 80th anniversary of Dr. Noguchi's death.[72] The Prize is awarded to individuals with outstanding achievements in combating various infectious diseases in Africa or in establishing innovative medical service systems.[73] The presentation ceremony and laureate lectures coincided with the Fourth Tokyo International Conference on African Development in late April 2008.[74] In 2009, the conference venue was moved from Tokyo to Yokohama as another way of honoring the man after whom the prize was named. In 1899, Dr. Noguchi worked at the Yokohama Port Quarantine Office as an assistant quarantine doctor.[75]

The Prize is expected to be awarded every five years.[76] The prize has been made possible through a combination of government funding and private donations.[77]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Hideyo Noguchi
  2. ^ Eckstein, Gustav, NOGUCHI, 1931, Harper, NY|page 11
  3. ^ a b c d e Yoshimine1; Do2; Moriyama3; Yanagisawa4; Takayesu5; Ishikawa6, Norio1; Shinichi2; Norinaga3; Takaaki4; Yoshinori5; Tatsuya6 (1999). "The Villa of the Late Dr. Hideyo Noguchi in Shandaken, New York State and the Tokyo Dental College". Journal of the Japanese Society of Dentistry History. 1 (1) – via National Library Diet Digital Collection.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c d Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. pp. viii.
  5. ^ Tan, Siang Yong; Furubayashi, Jill (October 2014). "Hideyo Noguchi (1876-1928): Distinguished bacteriologist". Singapore Medical Journal. 55 (10): 550–551. doi:10.11622/smedj.2014140. ISSN 0037-5675. PMC 4293967. PMID 25631898.
  6. ^ KIta, Atsushi (2005-07-01). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life Of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. p. 131.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  7. ^ a b Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. pp. 132–135.
  8. ^ a b c d Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. pp. 136–138.
  9. ^ a b Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery Hardcover. Kodansha USA. pp. 144–145.
  10. ^ a b c Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. p. 145.
  11. ^ Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. p. 163.
  12. ^ Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. p. 146.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Kita, Atsushi (July 1, 2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA.
  14. ^ Flexner, James Thomas. (1996). Maverick's Progress, pp. 51-52.
  15. ^ Gray, Christopher. "Streetscapes/Rockefeller University, 62nd to 68th Streets Along the East River; From a Child's Death Came a Medical Institute's Birth," New York Times. February 25, 2001.
  16. ^ a b "Hideyo Noguchi". Nobel Prize Nomination Archive. Archived from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
  17. ^ a b Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. p. 139.
  18. ^ Kita, Atsushi (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA. p. 140.
  19. ^ Tan-1 Furubayashi-2, Siang-1 Jill-2 (October 2014). "Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928): Distinguished bacteriologist". Singapore Medical Journal. 55 (10).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ "Hideyo Noguchi | Japanese bacteriologist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-10-04.
  21. ^ Dixon, Bernard. "Fame, Failure, and Yellowjack" Archived 2012-03-28 at the Wayback Machine, Microbe Magazine (American Society for Microbiology). May 2004.
  22. ^ a b Eckstein, Gustav (1931). Noguchi. Harper. p. 244.
  23. ^ a b c Eckstein, Gustav (1931). Noguchi. Harper.
  24. ^ "Hideyo as His Natural Self". Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum.
  25. ^ a b c Yamaguchi, Masafumi (October 26, 2015). "Color photo of Hideyo Noguchi after 100 years (from Alumni Journal No. 401)".
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Lederer, Susan (March 1985). "Hideyo Noguchi's Luetin Experiment and the Antivivisectionists". The History of Science Society. 76 (1): 31–48. doi:10.1086/353736. JSTOR 232791. PMID 3888912 – via JSTOR.
  27. ^ Barker, Leslie (November 1934). "Value of Organic Latin in Diagnosis and Treatment of Syphilis: A Study of Nine Hundred Cases". JAMA Dermatology. 30 (5): 676–691. doi:10.1001/archderm.1934.01460170068008.
  28. ^ a b c Noguchi H (1912). "Experimental research in syphilis with especial reference to Spirochaeta pallida (Treponema pallidum)". JAMA. 58 (16): 1163–1172. doi:10.1001/jama.1912.04260040179001.
  29. ^ a b Lederer, Susan E. Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995/1997 paperback
  30. ^ Susan E. Lederer. Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. pp. 86-7.
  31. ^ Schwikowski, Martina. "Robert Koch's dubious legacy in Africa". Deutsche Welle.
  32. ^ Najera, Rene. "The Other Side of Louis Pasteur's Discoveries in Science and Medicine".
  33. ^ a b Eckstein, Gustav (1931). Noguchi. Harper. p. 243.
  34. ^ Plesset, Isabel (1980). Noguchi and his Patrons. Rutherford, N.J. : Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 244.
  35. ^ Mehl, Margaret (March 16, 2023). "From Fukushima to Ghana: Noguchi Hideyo, the Peasant Boy Who Made It". Margaret Mehl. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
  36. ^ Tan, Siang (2014). "Hideyo Noguchi (1876-1928): Distinguished bacteriologist". Singapore Medical Journal. 55 (10): 550–551. doi:10.11622/smedj.2014140. PMC 4293967. PMID 25631898.
  37. ^ a b Eckstein, Gustav (1931). Noguchi. Harper. p. 236.
  38. ^ Eckstein, Gustav (1931). Noguchi. Harper. p. 235.
  39. ^ Lecoq, H (2001). "Discovery of the first virus, the tobacco mosaic virus: 1892 or 1898". Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. Serie III, Sciences de la Vie. 324 (10): 929–933. doi:10.1016/s0764-4469(01)01368-3. PMID 11570281.
  40. ^ SS Kantha. "Hideyo Noguchi's Research on Yellow Fever (1918-1928) In The Pre-Electron Microscope Era Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine," Kitasato Arch. of Exp. Med., 62.1 (1989), pp.1-9
  41. ^ "Prof. Adrian Stokes Dies of Yellow Fever – British Pathologist Succumbs in Africa to Disease He Went There to Study". The New York Times. September 22, 1927 – via www.nytimes.com.
  42. ^ Barrie, H. J. (1 January 1997). "Diary Notes on a Trip to West Africa in Relation to a Yellow Fever Expedition under the Auspices of the Rockefeller Foundation, 1926, by Oskar Klotz". Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 14 (1): 133–163. doi:10.3138/cbmh.14.1.133. PMID 11619770.
  43. ^ To, Wireless (May 22, 1928). "Dr. Noguchi is Dead, Martyr of Science. Bacteriologist of Rockefeller Institute Dies of Yellow Fever on Gold Coast. Japanese, Ranked With Pasteur and Metchnikoff, Found Carrier of Own Disease". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-08-26. Professor Hideyo Noguchi, bacteriologist of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, died here today from yellow fever, which ...
  44. ^ WA Young, personal letter dated 23 May 1928
  45. ^ "Obituary, Dr. W.A. Young". Nature. 122 (3062): 29. 7 July 1928. Bibcode:1928Natur.122Q..29.. doi:10.1038/122029a0.
  46. ^ Grant J (2007). Corrupted Science. Facts, Figures & Fun, 2007. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-904332-73-2.
  47. ^ Beret E. Strong, G. Richard O'Connor. Seeking the Light: The Lives of Phillips and Ruth Lee Thygeson. p. 57
  48. ^ de Rotth A (1939). "The Problem of the Etiology of Trachoma Rickettsia". Arch Ophthalmol. 22 (4): 533–539. doi:10.1001/archopht.1939.00860100017001.
  49. ^ Fielding H. Garrison. An introduction to the history of medicine. WB Saunders Co., 4th ed., 1966. p. 588.
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  54. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 2021-05-03.
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References

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