List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

Emperor of the Great Ming
Emperor of the Great Ming
大明皇帝
Imperial
	Imperial seal of the emperor
	First to reign; Hongwu Emperor; 23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398
Details
Style	Your Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor
First monarch	Hongwu Emperor (Ming dynasty); Hongguang Emperor (Southern Ming);
Last monarch	Chongzhen Emperor (Ming dynasty); Yongli Emperor (Southern Ming);
Formation	1368 (Ming dynasty); 1644 (Southern Ming);
Abolition	1644 (Ming dynasty); 1662 (Southern Ming);
Residence	Ming Palace, Nanjing; Forbidden City, Beijing; Varies according to the Southern Ming regimes;
Appointer	Hereditary

The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled China from 1368 to 1644. The Ming dynasty succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Sixteen emperors ruled over the whole of China proper spanning 276 years. During their reign, China experienced a long period of economic growth and political stability.^[1]

Below is a complete list of the emperors of the Ming dynasty, including their personal, temple, posthumous, and era names. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor, who ruled for 48 years (r. 1572–1620); the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.^[2]

The emperors of the Ming dynasty resided in the Forbidden City, a 72-hectare complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.^[3]

Background

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and drove the Mongols out of China. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new dynasty titled Da Ming and declared himself its first emperor.^[4]

In the late 1620s, peasant uprisings erupted in northern China. The weakened Ming government was unable to suppress them, and in 1644, the rebels even captured Beijing, leading to the Chongzhen Emperor's suicide.^[5] To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.^[6]

Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.^[7]

Succession

The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.^[9] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.^[10]

Titles and names

The emperor's personal name was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. The emperor was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 huangshang, or simply 上 shang).^[11] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name, usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters.^[12] Another name given posthumously was the temple name, and along with the posthumous name, they were used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple.^[13] Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".^[13]

The emperor's era name or reign name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time. During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, in Chinese historical texts, they are commonly referred to by the name of their era.^[13]

Head of state

The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dates back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty.^[15] In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.^[16] As the dynasty progressed, the subsequent emperors lacked the decisiveness of their founder and were subject to traditional limitations.^[17] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.^[18] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.^[18] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.^[18] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.^[17]

List of emperors

Ming dynasty

Personal name	Lifespan	Reign	Era name	Posthumous name^[a]	Temple name
Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 ^[20]	21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398	23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398	Hongwu 洪武 23 January 1368 – 5 February 1399 (22 January 1403)^[b]	Emperor Gao 高皇帝	Taizu 太祖
Zhu Yunwen 朱允炆 ^[20]	5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402	30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402	Jianwen 建文 6 February 1399 – 13 July 1402	Emperor Hui 惠皇帝	– ^[b]
Zhu Di 朱棣 ^[23]	2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424	17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424	Yongle 永樂 23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425	Emperor Wen 文皇帝	Taizong, 太宗, since 1538 Chengzu, 成祖
Zhu Gaochi 朱高熾 ^[23]	16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425	12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425	Hongxi 洪熙 20 January 1425 – 7 February 1426	Emperor Zhao 昭皇帝	Renzong 仁宗
Zhu Zhanji 朱瞻基 ^[23]	16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435	29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435	Xuande 宣德 8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436	Emperor Zhang 章皇帝	Xuanzong 宣宗
Zhu Qizhen 朱祁鎮 ^[23]	29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464	31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449	Zhengtong 正統 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450	Emperor Rui 睿皇帝	Yingzong 英宗
Zhu Qizhen 朱祁鎮 ^[23]	29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464	11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464	Tianshun^[c] 天順 11 February 1457 – 26 January 1465	Emperor Rui 睿皇帝	Yingzong 英宗
Zhu Qiyu 朱祁鈺 ^[24]	21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457	22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457	Jingtai 景泰 14 January 1450 – 11 February 1457	Emperor Jing 景皇帝	Daizong 代宗
Zhu Jianshen 朱見深 ^[24]	9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487	23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487	Chenghua 成化 27 January 1465 – 13 January 1488	Emperor Chun 純皇帝	Xianzong 憲宗
Zhu Youcheng 朱祐樘 ^[24]	30 July 1470 – 8 June 1505	9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505	Hongzhi 弘治 14 January 1488 – 23 January 1506	Emperor Jing 敬皇帝	Xiaozong 孝宗
Zhu Houzhao 朱厚照 ^[24]	26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521	8 June 1505 – 20 April 1521	Zhengde 正德 27 January 1522 – 27 January 1522	Emperor Yi 毅皇帝	Wuzong 武宗
Zhu Houcong 朱厚熜 ^[24]	16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567	27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567	Jiajing 嘉靖 28 January 1522 – 8 February 1567	Emperor Su 肅皇帝	Shizong 世宗
Zhu Zaiji 朱載坖 ^[24]	4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572	23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572	Longqing 隆慶 9 February 1567 – 1 February 1573	Emperor Zhuang 莊皇帝	Muzong 穆宗
Zhu Yijun 朱翊鈞 ^[25]	4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620	5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620	Wanli 萬曆 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620	Emperor Xian 顯皇帝	Shenzong 神宗
Zhu Changluo 朱常洛 ^[25]	28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620	28 August – 26 September 1620	Taichang 泰昌 28 August 1620 – 21 January 1621	Emperor Zhen 貞皇帝	Guangzong 光宗
Zhu Youjiao 朱由校 ^[25]	23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627	26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627	Tianqi 天啟 22 January 1621 – 4 February 1628	Emperor Zhe 悊皇帝	Xizong 熹宗
Zhu Youjian 朱由檢 ^[26]	6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644	2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644	Chongzhen 崇禎 5 February 1628 – 25 April 1644	Emperor Zhuanglie Min 莊烈愍皇帝	Sizong 思宗

Southern Ming

Title before accession to the throne	Personal name	Lifespan	Era name	Title Reign	Temple name
Prince of Fu 福王	Zhu Yousong 朱由崧 ^[27]	5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646	Hongguang 弘光 28 January 1645 – 17 August 1645	Emperor 19 June 1644 – 15 June 1645	Anzong 安宗
Prince of Lu (Luh)^[d] 潞王	Zhu Changfang 朱常淓 ^[28]	1608 – 23 May 1646	regent Lu (Luh)^[e] 潞王監國 1 July – 6 July 1645	Regent 1 July – 6 July 1645	–
Prince of Tang 唐王	Zhu Yujian 朱聿鍵 ^[29]	25 May 1602 – 6 October 1646	Longwu 隆武 18 August 1645 – 4 February 1647	Emperor 18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646	Shaozong 紹宗
Prince of Lu (Lou)^[d] 魯王	Zhu Yihai 朱以海 ^[30]	6 July 1618 – 23 December 1662	regent Lu^[e] 魯監國 16 February 1646 – 1653	Regent 7 September 1645 – 1653	–
Prince of Tang 唐王	Zhu Yuyue 朱聿鐭 ^[27]	1605 – 20 January 1647	Shaowu 紹武 ^[f]	Emperor 11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647	–
Prince of Gui 桂王	Zhu Youlang 朱由榔 ^[29]	1 November 1623 – 1 June 1662	Yongli 永曆 5 February 1647 – 1 June 1662	Emperor 24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662	Zhaozong 昭宗

Posthumously recognized individuals

This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Ming emperors posthumously.

Personal name (lifespan)	Posthumous name	Temple name	Year recognized	Notes
Zhu Bailiu 朱百六 (?–?)	Emperor Xuan 玄皇帝	Dezu 德祖	1368	Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor^[31]
Zhu Sijiu 朱四九 (?–?)	Emperor Heng 恆皇帝	Yizu 懿祖		Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor^[31]
Zhu Chuyi 朱初一 (?–?)	Emperor Yu 裕皇帝	Xizu 熙祖		Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor^[31]
Zhu Shizhen 朱世珍 (1281–1344)	Emperor Chun 淳皇帝	Renzu 仁祖		Father of the Hongwu Emperor^[31]
Zhu Biao 朱標 (10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392)	Emperor Xiaokang 孝康皇帝	Xingzong 興宗	1399 and 1644	Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Hongwu Emperor. Father of the Jianwen Emperor. Posthumously recognized as emperor by the Jianwen Emperor. After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status. In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor.^[32]
Zhu Youyuan 朱祐杬 (22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519)	Emperor Xian 獻皇帝	Ruizong 睿宗	1538	Father of the Jiajing Emperor^[33]
Zhu Changxun 朱常洵 (22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641)	Emperor Gong 恭皇帝 and Emperor Xiao 孝皇帝	Gongzong 恭宗	1644	Father of the Hongguang Emperor^[34]
Zhu Yuwen 朱宇溫 (1490–1560)	Emperor Hui 惠皇帝	–	1645	Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors^[35]
Zhu Zhouyong 朱宙栐 (1538–1564)	Emperor Shun 順皇帝	–		Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors^[35]
Zhu Shuohuang 朱碩熿 (? – 24 January 1630)	Emperor Duan 端皇帝	–		Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors^[35]
Zhu Qisheng 朱器墭 (?–1629)	Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝	–		Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors^[35]
Zhu Cilang 朱慈烺 (26 February 1629 – June 1644)	Emperor Dao 悼皇帝	–	1646	Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Chongzhen Emperor.^[36]
Zhu Changying 朱常瀛 (25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645)	Emperor Duan 端皇帝	Lizong 禮宗	1646	Father of the Yongli Emperor^[34]

Timeline

Legend:

Orange denotes Ming emperors
Cyan denotes Southern Ming emperors

Notes

^ These are just the shortened versions of the names. The Hongwu Emperor's full posthumous name, for example, was actually "Emperor Kaitian Xingdao Zhaoji Liji Dasheng Zhishen Renwen Yiwu Junde Chenggong Gao" (開天行道肇紀立極大聖至神仁文義武俊德成功高皇帝; 'Heaven-Opening, Way-Implementing, Dynasty-Founding, Pinnacle-Standing, Greatly Worthy, Most Holy, Benevolent, Cultivated, Rightteous, Martial, Refined,Virtuous, and Successful Exalted Emperor').^[19]
^ ^a ^b After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.^[21] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.^[22]
^ Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.
^ ^a ^b The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
^ ^a ^b Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function.
^ The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.

References

Citations

^ Fan (2016), p. 97.
^ Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
^ "Forbidden City | History, Facts, & Map". Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
^ Dillon (2016), p. 444.
^ Paludan (1998), p. 187.
^ Atwell (1988), p. 639.
^ Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
^ Brook (2010), p. 12.
^ Huang (1997).
^ Huang (1997), p. 175.
^ Wilkinson (2000), pp. 109–110.
^ Moule (1957), p. 106.
^ ^a ^b ^c Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History - Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
^ Paludan (1998), p. 180.
^ Wilkinson (2000), p. 106.
^ Ch'ien (1982), p. 91.
^ ^a ^b Ch'ien (1982), p. 93.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hucker (1966), p. 41.
^ Taylor (1975), p. 31.
^ ^a ^b Moule 1957, p. 106; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
^ Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
^ Tsai (2002), p. 88.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Moule 1957, p. 107; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Moule 1957, p. 108; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
^ ^a ^b ^c Moule 1957, p. 109; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
^ Moule 1957, p. 109; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi; Atwell 1988, p. 637.
^ ^a ^b Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
^ Twitchett & Mote (1988), p. xxiii.
^ ^a ^b Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
^ Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
^ Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
^ ^a ^b Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
^ Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.

Works cited

Zhang, Tingyu (1739). Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming].
Fan, C. Simon (2016). Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9780367374648.
Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve". The Journal of Asian Studies. 44 (4). doi:10.2307/2056469. JSTOR 2056469. S2CID 162510092.
Huang, Ray (1997). China: a macro history. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-730-5.
Ch'ien, Mu (1982). Traditional government in imperial China: a critical analysis. Translated by Hsüeh, Chün-tu; Totten, George O. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-254-X.
Hucker, Charles O (1966). The censorial system of Ming China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0289-6.
Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2000). Chinese history: a manual. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 0-674-00247-4.
Brook, Timothy (2010). The troubled empire: China in the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04602-3.
Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-By-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial China. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05090-2.
Dillon, Michael (2016). Encyclopedia of Chinese History. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415426992.
Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002). Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. Seattle, Wash.; Chesham: University of Washington Press; Combined Academic. ISBN 0295981245.
Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W., eds. (1998). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243335.
Moule, Arthur Christopher (1957). The rulers of China, 221 B.C.- A.D. 1949; chronological tables. New York: F. A. Praeger.
Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 (1 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 585–640. ISBN 0521243327.
Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327.
Taylor, Romeyn (1975). Basic Annals of Ming T'ai-tsu. Chinese Material and Research Aids Service Center, Inc. ASIN B076VFSKS1.
Bo, Yang (2010). Bo Yang quanji: Lishi juan 柏杨全集:历史卷 [The Complete Works of Bo Yang: History Volume] (in Chinese). Vol. 16. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House. ISBN 9787020080014.
Qian, Haiyue (2016). Nan Ming Shi 南明史 [History of the Southern Ming] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Book. ISBN 9787101044294.