Mormonism and polygamy
Mormonism and polygamy |
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Polygamy, known as "plural marriage" by Latter-day Saints in the 19th century and as "the Principle" by modern fundamentalist practitioners, was practiced by leaders of the the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) for much of the 19th century. From 1852 to 1890, between 20 and 30 percent of Latter-day Saint families publicly practiced polygamy.
The practice of polygamy has long been controversial, both within the LDS Church and in broader Western society. Many U.S. politicians were strongly opposed to polygamy, with the Republican platform even referring to it, alongside slavery, as "the twin relics of barbarism." Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter-day Saint movement, first introduced polygamy privately in the 1830s. By 1852, Orson Pratt,[1] a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, publicly announced and defended the practice at the request of then-church president Brigham Young.
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the LDS Church and the United States government were at odds over polygamy. The church defended it as a matter of religious freedom, while the federal government, reflecting public opinion, sought to eradicate the practice. Polygamy played a significant role in the Utah War of 1857–1858, with Republican critics accusing Democratic President James Buchanan of being weak in opposing both polygamy and slavery. In 1862, Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act which outlawed polygamy in U.S. territories. Despite this, many Latter-day Saints continued to practice polygamy, arguing that it was protected by the First Amendment. However, in 1879, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Morrill Act's constitutionality in Reynolds v. United States,[2] ruling that while laws cannot interfere with religious beliefs, they can regulate religious practices. [1]
In 1890, facing the prospect of Utah being denied statehood, church president Wilford Woodruff issued the 1890 Manifesto,[3] officially ending the practice of polygamy within the LDS Church. Although the manifesto did not dissolve existing polygamous marriages, it improved the church's relationship with the United States, helping Utah achieve statehood in 1896. After the manifesto, some church members continued to enter into polygamous marriages, but these gradually stopped by 1904 when church president Joseph F. Smith issued a "Second Manifesto". This declaration disavowed polygamy before Congress and mandated that all polygamous marriages cease, with excommunication as the penalty for disobedience.
Following the Second Manifesto, several small "fundamentalist" groups split from the LDS Church to continue the practice of polygamy. Notable among them are the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB) and the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. These groups, which rejected the LDS Church’s decision to renounce polygamy, formed separate communities that upheld the practice. Meanwhile, the LDS Church maintains a firm policy of excommunicating members found practicing polygamy and actively seeks to distance itself from fundamentalist groups. On its official website, the church states that "the standard doctrine of the church is monogamy" and that polygamy was a temporary exception to this rule.
Although the LDS Church no longer practices polygamy, it remains a defining issue within the broader Latter Day Saint movement, with various groups continuing to uphold the practice.[4]
Origin
[edit]Historian Richard van Wagoner suggests that Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter-day Saint movement, developed an interest in polygamy after studying parts of the Old Testament, where several prophets had multiple wives.[5]: 3 In the early 1830s or 1840s, Smith privately introduced the practice of religious polygamy among select members of the Church of Christ , which he had founded.[6] In Nauvoo, Illinois, Smith revealed the practice to church leaders and took multiple wives himself.[7] On July 12, 1843, Smith dictated a revelation he claimed to have received from God, explaining the theology and purpose of polygamy. The revelation linked polygamy to the biblical accounts of patriarchs such as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.[8] According to Smith, he already "knew the revelation perfectly from beginning to end" when he recorded it.[9]
At first, the practice was kept secret from the majority of church members and the public.[10] The church officially denounced polygamy, and only a select few were aware of its teachings and practiced the practice. [11] Over time, however, more members became aware of polygamy, and the church began publicly embracing the practice in early 1852, eight years after Smith’s death. By this time, polygamy was openly taught and practiced by some, according to contemporary accounts and historical sources. The doctrine authorizing polygamy was later canonized and first published in the 1876 edition of the church’s Doctrine and Covenants.[12]
Types of polygamous marriages
[edit]In the LDS Church, there were two types of polygamous marriages: eternity-only and time-and-eternity. Eternity-only marriages applied only in the afterlife, while time-and-eternity marriages applied both during mortal life and in the afterlife.[13] Smith had sexual relations with some of his plural wives, while with others, he did not.[14]
Teachings about polygamy
[edit]Polygamy in early Latter-day Saint (LDS) theology was deeply intertwined with beliefs about salvation, divine commandment, and the role of women. The practice was not only seen as a necessary part of Mormon doctrine but also a vital path to spiritual exaltation, and its teachings shaped the LDS faith for much of the 19th century.
Polygamy and Salvation
[edit]Polygamy was taught as essential for salvation.[15]: 186 in early Mormonism, with leaders like Brigham Young emphasizing its importance as a requirement for entering the highest levels of heaven. In fact, polygamy was seen as more significant than baptism, and men who were commanded to practice it but refused would be considered damned.[16] Brigham Young argued that those who did not accept the divine command to take multiple wives were failing to obey God’s will, and in some cases, they were advised to step down from their priesthood positions.[17] This belief was not limited to Young; church president Joseph F. Smith and other leaders also reinforced the idea that polygamy was crucial for salvation. In the late 1800s, some church members in St. George, Utah, were taught that exaltation—the highest form of salvation—was impossible without the practice of polygamy. The LDS church, through its official publications, also proposed that refusing polygamy could result in a lower position in the afterlife.[18]
Polygamy as a Divine Commandment
[edit]Polygamy was not just seen as a cultural tradition, but as a command from God given through revelation. Early Mormon leaders believed that God had made polygamy a part of His eternal plan for His followers. It wasn't just a suggestion; it was something required to reach the highest rewards in the afterlife. So, polygamy was considered a key part of following God's will and progressing spiritually.
Women's Role in Salvation
[edit]For women, polygamy had important religious meanings. Latter-day Saints taught that a woman’s salvation depended on being married to a righteous man who held the priesthood. Being sealed to a man in marriage was seen as the way to guarantee her place in heaven. Some women accepted polygamy because they believed it would bring them blessings and help secure their eternal salvation. However, their spiritual progress was often seen as tied to their role as wives—especially wives of men who held the priesthood. This created a belief that a woman's spiritual journey was linked to her place in a polygamous marriage.[19]: 132
Polygamy and Population Growth
[edit]Another significant rationale for the practice of polygamy was its role in increasing the Mormon population. The LDS Church saw polygamy as a way to grow the faith by encouraging childbirth within these marriages. Church leaders, in both private teachings and public publications, argued that polygamous marriages led to more offspring, which in turn increased the number of Mormons.[20]: 44 Some believed that polygamy resulted in physically and mentally superior children, and there were teachings in church-owned newspapers that promoted this idea, contrasting polygamous unions with monogamous marriages, which were seen as producing lesser offspring.[21][15]: 187
Polygamy and Morality
[edit]Polygamy was also justified on moral grounds. Early church leaders argued that it was the most moral form of marriage, one that prevented sexual temptation by ensuring that men were not driven to illicit relationships.[20]: 44 Monogamy, on the other hand, was sometimes criticized as being immoral because it was believed to increase sexual temptation and infidelity. [21] Polygamy, in this view, was seen as a way of providing a lawful and divinely ordained structure that protected men from sin and temptation, thus promoting a more righteous and moral lifestyle.
Biblical Precedents for Polygamy
[edit]Supporters of polygamy within the LDS Church often turned to the Bible to justify the practice. They pointed to figures like Abraham, Jacob, and King David, all of whom had multiple wives, as evidence that polygamy was a biblically acceptable form of marriage. Early Mormon leaders believed that polygamy was part of God’s plan for His followers, just as it had been for biblical figures. This biblical justification was central to the theological defense of polygamy, and it helped to legitimize the practice within the broader Christian community, despite its controversial nature.
Teachings on God and Jesus’ Polygamy
[edit]By the mid-1800s, some LDS leaders had extended the concept of polygamy to God the Father and Jesus Christ. Church leaders like Jedediah M. Grant and Orson Pratt taught that God the Father had multiple wives and that Jesus Christ Himself practiced polygamy.[22][23][24] In 1853, Grant argued that the persecution of Christ and His disciples was largely due to their practice of polygamy, while Orson Pratt later expanded on this idea, teaching that God the Father had a plurality of wives and that after her death, Mary, the mother of Jesus, may have become one of God’s eternal wives. Pratt further argued that Jesus had several wives, including Mary Magdalene, Martha, and Mary of Bethany, as further evidence of Christ’s practice of polygamy.[22] These teachings were widely accepted by church leaders and members during the 1850s and were used to defend the practice of polygamy as both a biblical and divinely mandated institutions.[25]
Modern Views on Polygamy
[edit]The LDS Church’s stance on polygamy has evolved over time. While the practice was officially renounced in 1890 under pressure from the U.S. government, some of the theological teachings surrounding polygamy have persisted in church literature and teachings. In 2015, a church manual described polygamy as a “test of faith” that brought early Latter-day Saints closer to God.[26] Church documents from more recent years continue to emphasize the belief that polygamy was seen as a commandment that would bring blessings to those who obeyed it. The church also pointed to polygamy as a way to increase the Mormon population through childbirth, a concept that was vital to the early church’s expansion. Though the church no longer practices polygamy, these historical beliefs continue to shape the understanding of the role of marriage and family in Mormon theology.[27]
Polygamy in the early LDS Church was a central element of its theology, shaping ideas about salvation, morality, and the roles of men and women. While the church no longer officially supports the practice, the impact of these teachings continues to influence Mormon views on marriage, family, and eternal life.
Polygamous marriages of early church leaders
[edit]Joseph Smith
[edit]
Joseph Smith, the founder of the LDS Church, is reported to have had a varying number of wives, with historical sources presenting different figures. The number of wives attributed to Smith ranges from 33 to 46, depending on the source.[28] D. Michael Quinn, a prominent historian, reports 46 wives, while George D. Smith lists 38.[29] Todd M. Compton , another historian, records 33 wives[30], with eight possible additional ones, and Stewart Davenport suggests 37 wives.[31] These varying accounts stem from the complexity of historical documentation and differing interpretations of records from the time.
The question of how many of these marriages involved sexual relations is also a matter of historical debate. While it is unclear whether Smith engaged in sexual relations with all of his plural wives, there is evidence suggesting that he did have intimate relations with at least some of them.[32][33][34] Contemporary accounts and historical records indicate that Smith may have had children with several of his wives, although the exact number of children he fathered remains uncertain. Genetic testing conducted in 2007 identified at least twelve individuals who are believed to be descendants of Joseph Smith through his plural marriages. However, the results of genetic testing were inconclusive for some potential descendants. For example, five individuals were found not to be his descendants, including Mosiah Hancock (son of Clarissa Reed Hancock), Oliver Buell (son of Prescindia Huntington Buell), Moroni Llewellyn Pratt (son of Mary Ann Frost Pratt), Zebulon Jacobs (son of Zina Diantha Huntington Jacobs Smith), and Orrison Smith (son of Fanny Alger). Testing results for the remaining potential descendants, including Josephine Lyon, whose mother claimed she was Smith's daughter, remain inconclusive.[34]
Other early church leaders
[edit]Beyond Joseph Smith, other prominent figures in the early LDS Church were also involved in polygamous marriages, with varying numbers of wives and children.
Brigham Young
[edit]Brigham Young, the second president of the LDS Church, is one of the most well-known figures associated with plural marriage. Young had 51 wives throughout his lifetime.[35] He fathered 56 children with 16 of these wives, making him one of the most prolific in terms of both marriage and childbearing among early LDS leaders. His practice of polygamy was central to his leadership role and teachings within the church, and he often advocated for plural marriage as an essential aspect of Latter-day Saint doctrine.
Heber C. Kimball
[edit]Heber C. Kimball, one of the original members of the LDS Church’s First Presidency and a key apostle, also practiced polygamy extensively. He had 43 wives and fathered 65 children with 17 of them.[35] Kimball was a staunch supporter of plural marriage and played a significant role in the expansion of the practice within the church. He is remembered as one of the early leaders who helped to establish and promote polygamy as a doctrinal and cultural foundation of early Mormonism. [36]
The practice of polygamy by these leaders not only shaped the early LDS community but also became a central aspect of their theological teachings. The legacy of their plural marriages continues to be a subject of discussion and research in Mormon history, influencing both the doctrine and culture of the church. Although the LDS Church no longer endorses polygamy, the historical practices of figures like Joseph Smith, Brigham Young, and Heber C. Kimball remain a significant part of the church’s early narrative.
Response to polygamy
[edit]Mormon response
[edit]Mormon reactions to polygamy were mixed. One historian notes that Mormon women often struggled with the practice, and many had to develop a belief in the divine commandment to accept it. Early church leaders such as Brigham Young, John Taylor, and Heber C. Kimball, initially opposed polygamy.[37] A Women’s personal spiritual experiences were often cited in support of accepting polygamy.[38] However, some Mormon women appreciated its effects and spiritual significance. [19]: 382
Orson Pratt, an early leader, defended polygamy as a divine revelation and argued that it was protected by the US Constitution as a religious freedom. Following the public announcement of the practice, Mormon leaders and missionaries published pamphlets and literature to defend it.[20]: 44
Non-Mormon response
[edit]The majority of non-Mormon Americans opposed polygamy, viewing it as a violation of American values and morality. Critics saw polygamy as oppressive to women, some describing it as a form of slavery. [39]: 117 This opposition contributed to the Republican Party labeling polygamy as a "relic of barbarism." Sensationalized, often violent novels about polygamy further fueled negative perceptions.
However, some non-Mormons, like Captain Howard Stansbury, believed that most polygamous marriages were successful, noting positive relationships between families in Utah Territory. [40]
John C. Bennett and The History of the Saints
[edit]John C. Bennett, a former church member and close associate of Joseph Smith, was excommunicated for adultery. Afterward, he published The History of the Saints: Or, An Exposé of Joe Smith and Mormonism in 1842, in which he accused Smith and other church leaders of sexual misconduct, secret rituals, and violence. The church responded to these claims by gathering affidavits and publishing contradictory evidence. The women of the Relief Society, led by Emma Smith, wrote testimonials to refute Bennett’s accusations.[19]: 74–75
Church officially ends polygamy
[edit]U.S. government actions against polygamy
[edit]This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2019) |
Mormon polygamy became a major moral issue in the 19th century, second only to slavery in its national importance. The U.S. government passed several laws aimed at curbing the practice, with varying degrees of success.
Anti-polygamy Bill of 1854
[edit]The Anti-Polygamy Bill of 1854 was the first attempt by Congress to stop polygamy in Utah. The bill suggested that men with multiple wives should not be allowed to own land in the Utah Territory. This was part of growing concern about the Mormon community’s practices. However, the bill did not pass in the House of Representatives because it didn't get enough support. Even though it failed, it marked the beginning of the government’s efforts to limit polygamy.
1857–1858 Utah War
[edit]As the church settled in what became the Utah Territory, it eventually was subjected to the power and opinion of the United States. Friction first began to show in the James Buchanan administration and federal troops arrived (see Utah War). Buchanan, anticipating Mormon opposition to a newly appointed territorial governor to replace Brigham Young, dispatched 2,500 federal troops to Utah to seat the new governor, thus setting in motion a series of misunderstandings in which the Mormons felt threatened.[41]
1862 Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act
[edit]The Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act of 1862 made polygamy illegal in U.S. territories like Utah. It also put limits on the Mormon Church’s ability to own land. While the law was not enforced well at first, it showed the government’s intention to stop polygamy. Brigham Young, the leader of the Mormon Church, pretended to follow the law to avoid further problems, even though polygamy continued in secret. This strategy allowed Young to maintain control of the Mormon community for a while.
Wade, Cragin, and Cullom Bills
[edit]The Wade, Cragin, and Cullom Bills were anti-bigamy legislation that failed to pass in the US Congress. The bills were all intended to enforce the Morrill Act's prohibition on polygamy with more punitive measures.[42] The Wade Bill of 1866 had the power to dismantle local government in Utah.[43] Three years after the Wade Bill failed, the Cragin Bill, which would have eliminated the right to a jury for bigamy trials, was introduced but not passed.[44] After that, the Cullom Bill was introduced. One of the most concerning parts of the Cullom Bill for polygamists was that, if passed, anyone who practiced any type of non-monogamous relationship would not be able to become a citizen of the United States, vote in elections, or receive the benefits of the homestead laws. The leadership of the church publicly opposed the Cullom Bill. Op-eds in church-owned newspapers declared the bill as unjust and dangerous to Mormons.[45]
The introduction of the Cullom Bill led to protests by Mormons, particularly Mormon women. Women organized indignation meetings to voice their disapproval of the bill.[19]: xii The strong reaction of Mormon women surprised many onlookers and politicians. Outside of the church, Mormon women were seen as weak and oppressed by their husbands and the men of the church. The political activism in support of polygamy of Mormon women was unexpected from a group that had been portrayed as powerless.[46][19]: xii–xvi
1874 Poland Act
[edit]Following the failure of the Wade, Cragin, and Collum Bills, the Poland Act was an anti-bigamy prosecution act that was successfully enacted by the 43rd United States Congress. The Poland Act, named after its sponsor in the US House of Representatives, attempted to prosecute Utah under the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act for refusing to stop practicing polygamy. The act stripped away some of Utah's powers and gave the federal government greater control over the territory. Among other powers, the act gave US district courts jurisdiction in the Utah Territory for all court cases.[47] The Poland Act was a significant threat to Mormons practicing polygamy as it allowed for men who had multiple wives to be criminally indicted.[48]
1882 Edmunds Act
[edit]In February 1882, George Q. Cannon, a prominent leader in the church, was denied a non-voting seat in the U.S. House of Representatives due to his polygamous relations. This revived the issue of polygamy in national politics. One month later, the Edmunds Act was passed by Congress, amending the Morrill Act and made polygamy a felony punishable by a $500 fine and five years in prison. "Unlawful cohabitation", in which the prosecution did not need to prove that a marriage ceremony had taken place (only that a couple had lived together), was a misdemeanor punishable by a $300 fine and six months imprisonment.[1] It also revoked the right of polygamists to vote or hold office and allowed them to be punished without due process. Even if people did not practice polygamy, they would have their rights revoked if they confessed a belief in it. In August, Rudger Clawson was imprisoned for continuing to cohabit with wives that he married before the 1862 Morrill Act.[49][50]
1887 Edmunds–Tucker Act
[edit]In 1887, the Edmunds–Tucker Act allowed the disincorporation of the LDS Church and the seizure of church property; it also further extended the punishments of the Edmunds Act. On July 31 of the same year, U.S. Attorney General George Peters filed suit to seize all church assets.[51]
The church was losing control of the territorial government, and many members and leaders were being actively pursued as fugitives. Without being able to appear publicly, the leadership was left to navigate "underground".[52][53]
Following the passage of the Edmunds–Tucker Act, the church found it difficult to operate as a viable institution. After visiting priesthood leaders in many settlements, church president Wilford Woodruff left for San Francisco on September 3, 1890, to meet with prominent businessmen and politicians. He returned to Salt Lake City on September 21, determined to obtain divine confirmation to pursue a course that seemed to be agonizingly more and more clear. As he explained to church members a year later, the choice was between, on the one hand, continuing to practice polygamy and thereby losing the temples, "stopping all the ordinances therein" and, on the other, ceasing to practice polygamy in order to continue performing the essential ordinances for the living and the dead. Woodruff hastened to add that he had acted only as the Lord directed.[53]
1879 Reynolds vs. United States
[edit]In 1879, the Supreme Court ruled that a defendant cannot claim a religious obligation as a valid defense to a crime and upheld the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act in Reynolds v. United States.[54]: 93 [55] The Court said that while holding a religious belief was protected under the First Amendment right of freedom of religion, practicing a religious belief that broke the law was not.[56] Reynolds vs. United States was the Supreme Court's first case in which a party used the right of freedom of religion as a defense. The ruling concluded that Mormons could be charged with committing bigamy despite their religious beliefs.[57]
1890 Manifesto banning polygamy
[edit]The final element in Woodruff's revelatory experience came on the evening of September 23, 1890. The following morning, he reported to some of the general authorities that he had struggled throughout the night with the Lord regarding the path that should be pursued. The result was a 510-word handwritten manuscript which stated his intentions to comply with the law and denied that the church continued to solemnize or condone polygamous marriages. The document was later edited by George Q. Cannon of the First Presidency and others to its present 356 words. On October 6, 1890, it was presented to the Latter-day Saints at the General Conference and unanimously approved.[58]
While many church leaders in 1890 regarded the Manifesto as inspired, there were differences among them about its scope and permanence. Contemporary opinions include the contention that the manifesto was more related to an effort to achieve statehood for the Utah territory.[58] Some leaders were reluctant to terminate a long-standing practice that was regarded as divinely mandated. As a result, over 200 polygamous marriages were performed between 1890 and 1904.[59]
1904 Second Manifesto
[edit]It was not until 1904, under the leadership of church president Joseph F. Smith, that the church completely banned new polygamous marriages worldwide.[60] Not surprisingly, rumors persisted of marriages performed after the 1890 Manifesto, and beginning in January 1904, testimony given in the Smoot hearings made it clear that polygamy had not been completely extinguished.
The ambiguity was ended in the General Conference of April 1904, when Smith issued the "Second Manifesto", an emphatic declaration that prohibited new polygamous marriages and proclaimed that offenders would be subject to church discipline.[61] It declared that any who participated in additional plural marriages, and those officiating, would be excommunicated from the church. Those disagreeing with the Second Manifesto included apostles Matthias F. Cowley and John W. Taylor, who both resigned from the Quorum of the Twelve. Cowley retained his membership in the church, but Taylor was later excommunicated.[61]
Although the Second Manifesto ended the official practice of new polygamous marriages, existing ones were not automatically dissolved. Many Mormons, including prominent church leaders, maintained their polygamy into the 1940s and 1950s.[61]
In 1943, the First Presidency learned that apostle Richard R. Lyman was cohabitating with a woman other than his legal wife. As it turned out, in 1925 Lyman had begun a relationship which he defined as a polygamous marriage. Unable to trust anyone else to officiate, Lyman and the woman exchanged vows secretly. By 1943, both were in their seventies. Lyman was excommunicated on November 12, 1943. The Quorum of the Twelve provided the newspapers with a one-sentence announcement, stating that the ground for excommunication was violation of the law of chastity.
Polygamy in other churches in the Latter Day Saint movement
[edit]Over time, many of those who rejected the LDS Church's relinquishment of polygamy formed small, close-knit communities in areas of the Rocky Mountains. These groups continue to practice "the Principle". In the 1940s, LDS Church apostle Mark E. Petersen coined the term "Mormon fundamentalist" to describe such people.[63] Fundamentalists either practice as individuals, as families, or as part of organized denominations. Today, the LDS Church objects to the use of the term "Mormon fundamentalists" and suggests using the term "polygamist sects" to avoid confusion about whether the main body of Mormon believers teach or practice polygamy.[64] The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (also referred to as the FLDS Church) continues to practice polygamy.[65]
Modern plural marriage theory within the LDS Church
[edit]Although the LDS Church has abandoned the practice of plural marriage, it has not abandoned the underlying doctrines of polygamy. It is still the practice of monogamous Mormon couples to be sealed to one another. However, in some circumstances, men and women may be sealed to multiple spouses. Most commonly, a man may be sealed to multiple wives: if his first wife dies, he may be sealed to a second wife. A deceased woman may also be sealed to multiple men, but only through vicarious sealing if they are also deceased.[66]
Multiple sealings when a prior spouse has died
[edit]In the case where a man's first wife dies, and the man remarries, and both of the marriages involve a sealing, LDS authorities teach that in the afterlife, the man will enter a polygamous relationship with both wives.[67] Current apostles Russell M. Nelson and Dallin H. Oaks are examples of such a case.[68]
Under LDS Church policy, a man whose sealed wife has died does not have to request any permission beyond having a current temple recommend and an interview with his bishop to get final permission for a living ordinance, to be married in the temple and sealed to another woman, unless the new wife's circumstance requires a cancellation of sealing. However, a woman whose sealed husband has died is still bound by the original sealing and must request a cancellation of sealing to be sealed to another man (see next paragraph for exception to this after she dies). In some cases, women in this situation who wish to remarry choose to be married to a subsequent husband and are not sealed to them, leaving them sealed to their first husband for eternity.
As of 1998, however, women who have died may be sealed to more than one man. In 1998, the LDS Church created a new policy that a woman may also be sealed to more than one man. A woman, however, may not be sealed to more than one man while she is alive. She may only be sealed to subsequent partners after both she and her husband(s) have died.[69] Thus, if a widow who was sealed to her first husband remarries, she may be sealed by proxy to all of her subsequent husband(s), but only after both she and the subsequent husbands have died. Proxy sealings, like proxy baptisms, are merely offered to the person in the afterlife, indicating that the purpose is to allow the woman to choose the right man to be sealed to.[70]This caveat is necessary to comply with Jesus's teaching in Mark 12, wherein he teaches the law of marriage with regards to the question of widows remarrying.
In the twenty-first century, church leadership has taught that doctrinal knowledge about the nature of family relations in the afterlife is limited and there is no official church teaching on how multiple marriages in life play out in the afterlife beyond trust in God that such matters will work out happily.[71]
Multiple sealings when marriages end in divorce
[edit]A man who is sealed to a woman but later divorced must apply for a "sealing clearance" from the First Presidency in order to be sealed to another woman.[72] Receiving clearance does not void or invalidate the first sealing. A woman in the same circumstances would apply to the First Presidency for a "cancellation of sealing" (sometimes called a "temple divorce"), allowing her to be sealed to another man. This approval voids the original sealing as far as the woman is concerned.[73] Divorced women who have not applied for a sealing cancellation are considered sealed to the original husband. However, according to Drs. Joseph Stuart and Janiece Johnson of the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, even in the afterlife the marriage relationship is voluntary, so no person could be forced into an eternal relationship through a temple sealing they do not wish to be in.[74] Divorced women may also be granted a cancellation of sealing, even though they do not intend to marry someone else. In this case, they are no longer regarded as being sealed to anyone and are presumed to have the same eternal status as unwed women.
Proxy sealings where both spouses have died
[edit]According to church policy, after a man has died, he may be sealed by proxy to all of the women to whom he was legally married while he was alive. The same is true for women; however, if a woman was sealed to a man while she was alive, all of her husbands must be deceased before she can be sealed by proxy to them.[69][75]
Church doctrine is not entirely specific on the status of men or women who are sealed by proxy to multiple spouses. There are at least two possibilities:
- Regardless of how many people a man or woman is sealed to by proxy, they will only remain with one of them in the afterlife, and that the remaining spouses, who might still merit the full benefits of exaltation that come from being sealed, would then marry another person in order to ensure each has an eternal marriage.
- These sealings create effective plural marriages that will continue after death. There are no church teachings clarifying whether polyandrous relationships can exist in the afterlife, so some church members doubt whether this possibility would apply to women who are sealed by proxy to multiple spouses. The possibility for women to be sealed to multiple men is a recent policy change enacted in 1998. Church leaders have neither explained this change, nor its doctrinal implications.
Criticism of LDS polygamy
[edit]Instances of unhappy polygamous marriage
[edit]Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that polygamy produced unhappiness in some wives.[76] Historian Todd Compton, in his book In Sacred Loneliness, described various cases where some wives in polygamous marriages were unhappy with polygamy.[32]
A means for immoral sexual gratification
[edit]Critics of polygamy in the early LDS Church claim that church leaders established the practice of polygamy in order to further their immoral desires for sexual gratification with multiple sexual partners.[77] Critics point to the fact that church leaders practiced polygamy in secret from 1833 to 1852, despite a written church doctrine (Doctrine and Covenants 101, 1835 edition) renouncing polygamy and stating that only monogamous marriages were permitted.[78]
Underage polygamous marriages
[edit]Historian George D. Smith studied 153 men who took multiple wives in the early years of the Latter Day Saint movement, and found that two of the girls were thirteen years old, 13 girls were fourteen years old, 21 were fifteen years old, and 53 were sixteen years old.[84] Historian Todd Compton believes that Joseph Smith married one girl who was fourteen-years old (possibly two); according to Compton, "it is unlikely that the marriage was consummated".[85][a] Historian Stanley Hirshon documented cases of girls aged 10 and 11 being married to old men.[87]
The mean age of marriage for women was lower in Mormon polygamy than in New England and the Northeastern states (the societies in which Smith and many early converts to the movement had lived), and this was partly caused by the practice of polygamy, and Compton concludes that "[e]arly marriage and very early marriage were… accepted" in early Mormonism.[88] These marriages were frequently dynastic in purpose, meant to join people to the families of leaders, motivated by the significance of marriage for the nineteenth-century Latter-day Saint understanding of the afterlife.[89] According to Compton, the "valid parallel" for Mormon early marriages is the "American and European history of elite early marriages that were not consummated until the marriage participants were much older".[90] Compton "find[s] dynastic marriages of teenage girls problematic, even if sexual consummation is delayed".[91]
Unmarried men
[edit]If some men have several wives and the numbers of men and women are approximately equal, some men will necessarily be left without wives. In the denominations that still practice polygamy today, such men, known as lost boys are often driven out so as not to compete with high-ranked polygamous men.[92]
See also
[edit]- Current state of polygamy in the Latter Day Saint movement
- Criticism of the Latter Day Saint movement
- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and politics in the United States
- Marriage in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
- Short Creek raid
- Sister Wives
Notes
[edit]- ^ These were Helen Mar Kimball and Nancy Maria Winchester. Kimball was fourteen-years old when Smith married her in May 1843; Winchester was either fourteen or fifteen, as the date of her marriage to Smith in relation to her birthday is uncertain. On nonconsummation, Compton states, "my judgment is that it is unlikely that the marriage was consummated" and "it is not just not certain, it is unlikely, in my judgment".[86]
Citations
[edit]- ^ a b c Embry, Jessie L. (1994), "Polygamy", in Powell, Allan Kent (ed.), Utah History Encyclopedia, Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press, ISBN 0874804256, OCLC 30473917, archived from the original on April 17, 2017, retrieved October 30, 2013
- ^ Reynolds v. United States “The History of The Supreme Court”
- ^ Lyman, Edward Leo (1994), "Manifesto (Plural Marriage)", Utah History Encyclopedia, University of Utah Press, ISBN 9780874804256, archived from the original on July 31, 2024, retrieved August 19, 2024
- ^ Brady McCombs (November 12, 2019). "Mexico killing highlights confusion over Mormon groups". KUTV. Associated Press.
- ^ Van Wagoner, Richard S. (1989). Mormon polygamy: A History (2nd ed.). Signature Books. ISBN 978-1-56085-303-9. OCLC 681161668.
- ^ Hendrix-Komoto 2022, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Park 2020, pp. 104–107.
- ^ Park 2020, p. 153
- ^ Hardy (2007, p. 60).
- ^ Bushman 2005, p. 491; Hendrix-Komoto 2022, p. 66. See also Dowland, Seth (September 26, 2017). Barton, John (ed.). "Gender, Marriage, and Sexual Purity in American Religious History". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.432. ISBN 978-0-19-934037-8.
- ^ Bushman 2005, p. 491; Park 2020, p. 67; Hendrix-Komoto 2022, p. 66.
- ^ Bringhurst 2010, p. 60.
- ^ Hales, Brian C. (2017). "'He Had No Other Wife but Me': Emma Hale Smith and Mormon Polygamy". The John Whitmer Historical Association Journal. 37 (1): 5. ISSN 0739-7852. JSTOR 26316890.
- ^ Van Wagoner 1989, p. 72n3; Park 2020, pp. 67, 104–106.
- ^ a b Linford, Orma (1965). The Mormons and the Law: The Polygamy Cases. The University of Wisconsin.
- ^ Hardy 2007, p. 112
- ^ Hardy 2007, pp. 112–113
- ^ Hardy 2007, p. 113
- ^ a b c d e Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher (2017). A House Full of Females: Plural Marriage and Women's Rights in Early Mormonism, 1835–1870 (1st ed.). Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-59490-7. OCLC 955274387.
- ^ a b c Whittaker, David J. (1984). "Early Mormon Polygamy Defenses". Journal of Mormon History. 11: 43–63. ISSN 0094-7342. JSTOR 23286126.
- ^ a b Hardy 2007, p. 117
- ^ a b Schelling Durham, Michael (1997). Desert Between the Mountains: Mormons, Miners, Padres, Mountain Men, and the Opening of the Great Basin, 1772–1869 (1st ed.). Henry Holt & Company, Inc. p. 182. ISBN 9780805041613.
Pratt clearly loud out arguments in favor of polygamy that the Saints would use for years to come. ... Pratt and others argued that Jesus had three wives: Mary Magdalene, and Lazarus' two sisters, Mary and Martha. Apostle Orson Hyde went a step further and preached that 'Jesus Christ was married at Cana of Galilee, that Mary, Martha, and others were his wives, and that he begat children.'
- ^ Swanson, Vern G. (2013). "Christ and Polygamy". Dynasty of the Holy Grail: Mormonism's Holy Bloodline. Cedar Fort, Inc. pp. 247–259. ISBN 9781462104048.
Dr. William E. Phipps noted that the belief that 'Jesus married, and married often!' was used to encourage and promote the doctrine of polygamy amongst timid Latter-Day Saints ... By the late-1850s the idea that more than one woman was married to Jesus was widely accepted among Mormon circles. ... As if the concept of Christ's polygamy was not unsettling enough, Mormonism even taught in the nineteenth century that God the Father had a plurality of wives as well.
- ^ Hardy 2007, p. 84
- ^ Hyde, Orson (March 1857). "Man the Head of the Woman – Kingdom of God – The Seed of Christ – Polygamy – Society in Utah". Journal of Discourses. 4: 259.
It will be borne in mind that once on a time, there was a marriage in Cana of Galilee; and on a careful reading of that transaction, it will be discovered that no less a person than Jesus Christ was married on that occasion. If he was never married, his intimacy with Mary and Martha, and the other Mary also whom Jesus loved, must have been highly unbecoming and improper to say the best of it.
- ^ "Lesson 20: Plural Marriage". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
- ^ "Polygamy: What Latter-day Saints Really Believe | LDS.org.ph". ph.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved April 28, 2023.
- ^ Remini 2002, p. 153 .
- ^ Smith 2010, p. 621.
- ^ Compton 1997, pp. 4–10.
- ^ Davenport 2022, p. 139.
- ^ a b Compton 1997
- ^ Anderson, Richard Lloyd; Faulring, Scott H. "The Prophet Joseph Smith and His Plural Wives". FARMS Review. 10 (2). mi.byu.edu. Retrieved July 10, 2010.
- ^ a b "Mormon church polygamy: Joseph Smith 'had up to 40 wives'". BBC News. November 11, 2014. Retrieved April 20, 2023.
- ^ a b Jessee, Dean C. (2001). "'A Man of God and a Good Kind Father': Brigham Young at Home". Brigham Young University Studies. 40 (2): 23–53. ISSN 0007-0106. JSTOR 43042842.
- ^ Kimball, Stanley B. "Kimball, Heber Chase". Utah History Encyclopedia.
- ^ Newell, Linda King (1984). Mormon Enigma: Emma Hale Smith. Valeen Tippetts Avery (1st ed.). Doubleday. p. 98. ISBN 0-385-17166-8. OCLC 10376019.
- ^ Hardy 2007, pp. 160–161
- ^ Talbot, Christine (2013). A foreign kingdom : Mormons and polygamy in American political culture, 1852–1890. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-09535-1. OCLC 862745819.
- ^ Hardy 2007, p. 191
- ^ Poll, Richard D. (1994), "The Utah War", in Powell, Allan Kent (ed.), Utah History Encyclopedia, Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah Press, ISBN 0874804256, OCLC 30473917, archived from the original on January 13, 2017, retrieved November 11, 2013
- ^ Toler, Lorianne Updike (October 2019). "Western Reconstruction and Women's Suffrage". William and Mary Bill of Rights Journal. 28 (1): 147–170.
- ^ Poll, Richard D. (1986). "The Legislative Antipolygamy Campaign". Brigham Young University Studies. 26 (4): 107–121. ISSN 0007-0106. JSTOR 43042251.
- ^ Prior, David (September 10, 2010). "Civilization, Republic, Nation: Contested Keywords, Northern Republicans, and the Forgotten Reconstruction of Mormon Utah". Civil War History. 56 (3): 283–310. doi:10.1353/cwh.2010.0003. ISSN 1533-6271. S2CID 145660564.
- ^ Derr, Jill Mulvay; Madsen, Carol Cornwall; Holbrook, Kate; Grow, Matthew J., eds. (2016). "Minutes of 'Ladies Mass Meeting,' January 6, 1870". The First Fifty Years of Relief Society: Key Documents in Latter-day Saint Women's History. Church Historian's Press. 3.12. ISBN 978-1-62972-150-7.
- ^ Kitterman, Katherine (March 16, 2020). "How Utah Women Gained the Right to Vote in 1870 (Part 2)". Better Days 2020. Retrieved March 28, 2023.
- ^ "The Poland Act". www.famous-trials.com. Retrieved March 28, 2023.
- ^ "Chapter Thirty-Three: A Decade of Persecution, 1877–87". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved March 28, 2023.
- ^ Dickinson, Ellen E.; Spaulding, Solomon (1885). New Light on Mormonism. Harvard University: Funk & Wagnalls. pp. 182–184.
- ^ Hardy, B. Carmon (August 30, 2017). Doing the Works of Abraham: Mormon Polygamy – Its Origin, Practice, and Demise. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 291. ISBN 9780806159133.
- ^ Alexander, Thomas G. (1991). "The Odyssey of a Latter-day Prophet: Wilford Woodruff and the Manifesto of 1890". Journal of Mormon History. 17: 169–206. JSTOR 23286430. Retrieved February 5, 2024.
- ^ van Beek 2003, p. 123.
- ^ a b Bowman 2022, p. 174.
- ^ Firmage, Edwin B. (1987). "The Judicial Campaign against Polygamy and the Enduring Legal Questions". Brigham Young University Studies. 27 (3): 91–117. ISSN 0007-0106. JSTOR 43041301.
- ^ "Reynolds v. United States, 98 U.S. 145 (1878)". Justia Law. Retrieved March 31, 2023.
- ^ Berkley Center for Religion, Peace and World Affairs. "Reynolds v. United States". berkleycenter.georgetown.edu. Retrieved March 31, 2023.
- ^ Smith, Stephen Eliot (2009). "Barbarians within the Gates: Congressional Debates on Mormon Polygamy, 1850–1879". Journal of Church and State. 51 (4): 587–616 [587]. doi:10.1093/jcs/csq021. ISSN 0021-969X. JSTOR 23921808.
- ^ a b "The Mormons – Special Features – PBS". www.pbs.org.
- ^ Hardy 1992
- ^ Scriptures of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, for the Sunday Schools, Salt Lake City: Deseret Sunday School Union, 1968, p. 159.
- ^ a b c Embry, Jessie L. (1994). "The History of Polygamy". heritage.utah.gov. Utah State Historical Society. Archived from the original on November 7, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2018.
Those involved in plural marriages after 1904 were excommunicated; and those married between 1890 and 1904 were not to have church callings where other members would have to sustain them. Although the Mormon church officially prohibited new plural marriages after 1904, many plural husbands and wives continued to cohabit until their deaths in the 1940s and 1950s.
- ^ Dobner, Jennifer (August 20, 2006). "Teens defend polygamy at Utah rally". Yahoo! News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on September 2, 2006. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
- ^ Ken Driggs, "'This Will Someday Be the Head and Not the Tail of the Church': A History of the Mormon Fundamentalists at Short Creek," Journal of Church and State 43:49 (2001) at p. 51.
- ^ "The Mormons . Frequently Asked Questions . Dissent/Excommunication/Controversies – PBS". www.pbs.org.
- ^ "Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints". Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved April 10, 2023.
- ^ Handbook 1: Stake Presidents and Bishops (Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church, 2010) § 3.6.1.
- ^ Charles W. Penrose, "Mormon" Doctrine Plain and Simple, or Leaves from the Tree of Life, 1897, Salt Lake City, p.66 ("In the case of a man marrying a wife in the everlasting covenant who dies while he continues in the flesh and marries another by the same divine law, each wife will come forth in her order and enter with him into his glory."); Joseph Fielding Smith, Bruce R. McConkie, ed., Doctrines of Salvation, 1956, vol. 2, p. 67 (Smith, who was sealed to two different women, stated, "[M]y wives will be mine in the eternity."); Harold B. Lee, Deseret News 1974 Church Almanac, p. 17 ("My lovely Joan was sent to me: So Joan joins Fern/That three might be, more fitted for eternity./'O Heavenly Father, my thanks to thee'.").
- ^ "When I was 66, my wife June died of cancer. Two years later I married Kristen McMain, the eternal companion who now stands at my side." "Timing", Ensign, October 2003.
- ^ a b LDS Church, Church Handbook of Instructions, (LDS Church, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1998) p. 72. "A deceased woman may be sealed to all men to whom she was legally married during her life. However, if she was sealed to a husband during her life, all her husbands must be deceased before she can be sealed to a husband to whom she was not sealed during life."
- ^ "38. Church Policies and Guidelines". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved August 25, 2024.
- ^ Oaks, Dallin H. (November 2019). "Trust in the Lord". Ensign. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
- ^ "Why must one who is divorced be cleared by the First Presidency to go back to the temple?". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved November 11, 2021.
- ^ C, Angela (June 26, 2019). "Clearance vs. Cancellation". By Common Consent, a Mormon Blog. Retrieved November 11, 2021.
- ^ Stuart, Joseph; Johnson, Janiece. "Abide #19: Doctrine and Covenants 129-132". Abide: A Maxwell Institute Podcast (Podcast). Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship. Retrieved December 3, 2021. "All eternal relationships are voluntary. We will not be forced into anything eternally" (39:32).
- ^ "Help Center — FamilySearch.org". help.familysearch.org.
- ^ Tanner 1979, pp. 226–228
- ^ Tanner 1979, pp. 204–290
- ^ Tanner 1987, p. 202
- ^ Goodstein, Laurie (November 10, 2014). "It's Official: Mormon Founder Had Up to 40 Wives". The New York Times. Retrieved June 2, 2017.
[Joseph Smith Jr.] married Helen Mar Kimball, a daughter of two close friends, 'several months before her 15th birthday'.
- ^ Turner, John G. (October 27, 2012). "Polygamy, Brigham Young and His 55 Wives". The Huffington Post. Retrieved June 2, 2017.
The sheer variety of Brigham Young's marriages makes it difficult to make sense of them. He married – was sealed to, in Mormon parlance – young (Clarissa Decker, 15) and old (Hannah Tapfield King, 65).
- ^ Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2009). Civil Disobedience: An Encyclopedic History of Dissidence in the United States (1st ed.). Rootledge. p. 220. ISBN 978-0765681270. Retrieved June 2, 2017.
The name of each wife is followed by her age at marriage, the place of marriage, and the year the couple married. ... Lorenzo Snow ... Sarah Minnie Jensen, 16, Salt Lake City, 1871
- ^ Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher (2017). A House Full of Females: Plural Marriage and Women's Rights in Early Mormonism, 1835–1870. Knopf. p. 274. ISBN 978-0307594907. Retrieved June 3, 2017.
Wilford Woodfruff & (Emma Smith born March 1st 1838 at Diahman Davis County Missouri) was Sealed for time & Eternity by President Brigham Young at 7 oclock p.m. March 13, 1853.
- ^ Hacker, J. David; Hilde, Libra; Jones, James Holland (2010). "Nuptiality Measures for the White Population of the United States, 1850–1880". The Journal of Southern History. 76 (1): 39–70. PMC 3002115. PMID 21170276.
- ^ George D. Smith, "Nauvoo Polygamists," Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Spring 1994, p. ix.
- ^ Compton 1997, pp. 6, 606.
- ^ Compton 2010, p. 231
- ^ Hirshon 1969, pp. 126–127
- ^ Compton 2010, p. 229.
- ^ Compton 2010, pp. 230–231.
- ^ Compton 2010, p. 231.
- ^ Compton 2010, p. 231n74.
- ^ Borger, Julian (June 14, 2005). "The lost boys, thrown out of US sect so that older men can marry more wives". The Guardian. Retrieved September 21, 2023.
References
[edit]- Alexander, Thomas G. (1991). "The Odyssey of a Latter-day Prophet: Wilford Woodruff and the Manifesto of 1890". Journal of Mormon History. 17: 169–206. Archived from the original on September 23, 2010.
- Alexander, Thomas G. (1996). Mormonism in Transition: A History of the Latter-day Saints, 1890–1930. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252065781.
- Andrus, Hyrum Leslie (1973). Doctrines of the Kingdom. Bookcraft. p. 450. ISBN 9781573454629.
- Argus (September 9, 1871). "History of Mormonism: An Open Letter to Brigham Young". The Daily Corinne Reporter. 4 (84).
- Bennett, John C. (1842). The History of the Saints : Or, an Exposé of Joe Smith and Mormonism. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02589-X.
- Bowman, Matthew (2022). "Religion in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era". In Nichols, Christopher McKnight; Unger, Nancy C. (eds.). A Companion to the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. Wiley. pp. 165–177. ISBN 9781119775706.
- Bradley, Don (2010). "Mormon Polygamy Before Nauvoo? The Relationship of Joseph Smith and Fanny Alger". In Bringhurst, Newell G.; Foster, Craig L. (eds.). The Persistence of Polygamy: Joseph Smith and the Origins of Mormon Polygamy. Vol. 1. John Whitmer Books. pp. 14–58. ISBN 978-1-934901-13-7.
- Bringhurst, Newell G. (2010). "Section 132 of the LDS Doctrine and Covenants: Its Complex Contents and Controversial Legacy". In Bringhurst, Newell G.; Foster, Craig L. (eds.). The Persistence of Polygamy: Joseph Smith and the Origins of Mormon Polygamy. Vol. 1. John Whitmer Books. pp. 59–86. ISBN 978-1-934901-13-7.
- Bushman, Richard Lyman (2005). Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4270-4.
- Bushman, Richard Lyman (2008). Mormonism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531030-6.
- Compton, Todd (1996). "Fanny Alger Smith Custer, Mormonism's First Plural Wife?". Journal of Mormon History. 22 (1). Archived from the original on December 21, 2008.
- Compton, Todd (1997). In Sacred Loneliness: The Plural Wives of Joseph Smith. Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-085-X.
- Compton, Todd (2010). "Early Marriage in the New England and Northeastern States, and in Mormon Polygamy: What Was the Norm?". In Bringhurst, Newell G.; Foster, Craig L. (eds.). The Persistence of Polygamy: Joseph Smith and the Origins of Mormon Polygamy. Vol. 1. John Whitmer Books. pp. 184–232. ISBN 978-1-934901-13-7.
- Davenport, Stewart (2022). Sex and Sects: The Story of Mormon Polygamy, Shaker Celibacy, and Oneida Complex Marriage. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-4705-1.
- Embry, Jessie L. (1987). Mormon Polygamous Families: Life in the Principle. University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-277-6.
- Faulring, Scott H. (1987). An American Prophet's Record: The Diaries and Journals of Joseph Smith. Signature Books. ISBN 0-941214-55-9.
- Gage, Matilda Joslyn (1972). Woman, Church, and State: A Historical Account of the Status of Woman Through the Christian Ages, With Reminiscences of the Matriarchate. Arno. ISBN 0-405-04458-5.
- Hales, Brian C. (2007). Modern Polygamy and Mormon Fundamentalism: The Generations After the Manifesto. John Whitmer Historical Association. ISBN 978-1-58958-035-0.
- Hardy, B. Carmon (2005). "That 'Same Old Question of Polygamy and Polygamous Living:' Some Recent Findings Regarding Nineteenth and Early Twentieth-Century Mormon Polygamy" (PDF). Utah Historical Quarterly. 73 (3): 212–224. doi:10.2307/45062934. JSTOR 45062934. S2CID 254439450. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2008.
- Hardy, B. Carmon (1992). Solemn Covenant: The Mormon Polygamous Passage. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-01833-8. Archived from the original on August 31, 2005.
- Hardy, B. Carmon, ed. (2007). Doing the Works of Abraham: Mormon Polygamy: Its Origin, Practice, and Demise. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-5906-5.
- Hendrix-Komoto, Amanda (2022). Imperial Zions: Religion, Race, and Family in the American West and the Pacific. Studies in Pacific Worlds. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-1-4962-3346-2.
- Hirshon, Stanley P. (1969). The Lion of the Lord. Alfred A. Knopf.
- Ostling, Richard and Joan (1999). Mormon America. HarperCollins.
- Park, Benjamin E. (2020). Kingdom of Nauvoo: The Rise and Fall of a Religious Empire on the American Frontier. Liveright. ISBN 978-1-324-09110-3.
- Quinn, D. Michael (1997). "Part 2: Family and Interpersonal Relationships – Plural Marriage and Mormon Fundamentalism". In Marty, Martin E.; Appleby, R. Scott (eds.). Fundamentalisms and Society: Reclaiming the Sciences, the Family, and Education. The Fundamentalism Project. University of Chicago Press. pp. 240–293. ISBN 9780226508818.
- Quinn, D. Michael (Spring 1985). "LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890–1904". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 18 (1): 9–105. doi:10.2307/45225323. JSTOR 45225323. S2CID 259871046. Archived from the original on November 10, 2021.
- Quinn, D. Michael (1994). The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power. Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-056-6.
- Smith, George D. (1995) [1991]. Intimate Chronicle: The Journals of William Clayton. Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-022-1. LCCN 89027572. OCLC 32830497. Archived from the original on December 2, 2014.
- Smith, George D. (2010) [2008]. Nauvoo Polygamy: "...but we called it celestial marriage" (2nd ed.). Signature Books. ISBN 978-1-56085-207-0. LCCN 2010032062. OCLC 656848353. Archived from the original on December 2, 2014.
- Stenhouse, Fanny (1875). Tell it All: A Woman's Life in Polygamy. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-2811-3.
- Tanner, Jerald and Sandra (1979). The Changing World of Mormonism. Moody Press. ISBN 0-9620963-2-6.
- Tanner, Jerald and Sandra (1987). Mormonism – Shadow or Reality?. Utah Lighthouse Ministry. ISBN 99930-74-43-8.
- van Beek, Walter E. A. (2003). "Pathways of Fundamentalization: The Peculiar Case of Mormonism". In ter Haar, Gerrie; Busuttil, James (eds.). The Freedom to Do God's Will: Religious Fundamentalism and Social Change. Taylor & Francis. pp. 111–142. ISBN 9781134490103.
- Woodruff, Wilford (1984). Kenney, Scott G. (ed.). Wilford Woodruff's Journal. Vol. 5. Signature Books. ISBN 0941214133. Volume 5 includes journals from January 1, 1857 to December 31, 1861.
- Whitney, Orson F. (1888). The Life of Heber C. Kimball.
- Young, Ann Eliza (1875–76). Wife No. 19, or the Story of a Life in Bondage. Kensinger Publishing, LLC. ISBN 0766140482.
Further reading
[edit]Books
[edit]- Bringhurst, Newell G.; Foster, Craig L.; Hardy, B Carmon, eds. (2013). The Persistence of Polygamy: from Joseph Smith's Martyrdom to the First Manifesto, 1844–1890. Volume 2. John Whitmer Books. ISBN 978-1934901144. OCLC 874165313.
- Bringhurst, Newell G.; Hamer, John C., eds. (2007). Scattering of the Saints: Schism within Mormonism. John Whitmer Books. ISBN 978-1934901021. OCLC 225910256.
- Jacobson, Cardell K.; Burton, Lara, eds. (2011). Modern Polygamy in the United States: Historical, Cultural, and Legal Issues. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199746378. OCLC 466084007.
- Talbot, Christine. A Foreign Kingdom: Mormons and Polygamy in American Political Culture, 1852–1890. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2013.
- Smith, William Victor. "Textual Studies of the Doctrine and Covenants: The Plural Marriage Revelation." Salt Lake City, UT: Greg Kofford Books, 2018.
- Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher (2017). A House Full of Females: Plural Marriage and Women's Rights in Early Mormonism, 1835–1870. New York. Alfred A. Knopf.
Journal articles
[edit]- Bachman, Danel W. (1978). "New Light on an Old Hypothesis: The Ohio Origins of the Revelation on Eternal Marriage". Journal of Mormon History. 5: 19–32. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008.
- Beecher, Maureen Ursenbach (1982). "The 'Leading Sisters': A Female Hierarchy in Nineteenth Century Mormon Society". Journal of Mormon History. 9: 25–40. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008.
- Bradley, Martha Sonntag; Woodward, Mary Brown Firmage (1994). "Plurality, Patriarchy, and the Priestess: Zina D. H. Young's Nauvoo Marriages". Journal of Mormon History. 20 (1): 84–118. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008.
- Bradley, Martha Sonntag (2000). Four Zinas. Signature Books. ISBN 1-56085-141-4. Archived from the original on October 24, 2005.
- Daynes, Kathryn M. (1988). "Single Men in a Polygamous Society: Male Marriage Patterns in Manti, Utah". Journal of Mormon History. 24 (1): 89–112. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008.
- Embry, Jessie L. (1992). "Ultimate Taboos: Incest and Mormon Polygamy". Journal of Mormon History. 18 (1): 93–113. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008.
- James, Kimberly Jensen (1981). "'Between Two Fires': Women on the 'Underground' of Mormon Polygamy". Journal of Mormon History. 8: 49–62. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008.
- Quinn, D. Michael (1998). "Plural Marriage and Mormon fundamentalism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 31 (2): 1–68. doi:10.2307/45226443. JSTOR 45226443. S2CID 254325184.
- Smith, William (2016). "A Documentary Note on a Letter to Joseph Smith. Romance, Death, and Polygamy: The Life and Times of Susan Hough Conrad and Lorenzo Dow Barnes" (PDF). Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 49 (4): 87–108. doi:10.5406/dialjmormthou.49.4.0087. S2CID 171950489.
Other
[edit]- Compton, Todd M. (n.d.), The Four Major Periods of Mormon Polygamy, Signature Books Library
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: year (link) - "Gospel Topics: Plural Marriage in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", lds.org, LDS Church – provides a historical overview
- "Gospel Topics: Plural marriage in Kirtland and Nauvoo", lds.org, LDS Church, retrieved October 22, 2014 – about the beginnings of polygamy in the church
- "Gospel Topics: Plural Marriage and Families in Early Utah", lds.org, LDS Church – about polygamy in Utah
- "Gospel Topics: The Manifesto and the End of Plural Marriage", lds.org, LDS Church – about the gradual ending of LDS polygamy
- Main Street Church (2007), Lifting the Veil of Polygamy (polemic exposé video)
- Benjamin E. Park (May 14, 2020). "How An 1843 Revelation on Polygamy Poses A Serious Challenge to Modern Mormonism". Religion Dispatches.
External links
[edit]- Media related to Mormonism and polygamy at Wikimedia Commons